A research design provides a framework for the collection and analysis of data a choice of research design reflects decisions about the priority being given to a range of dimensions of the research process. These include the importance attached to:
1) expressing causal connections between variables;
2) generalizing to larger groups of individuals than those actually forming part of the investigation;
3) understanding behaviour and the meaning of that behaviour in its specific social context; and
4) having a temporal (i.e. over time) appreciation of social phenomena and their interconnections. (Bryman and Bell, 2007)
WHAT IS RESEARCH METHOD?
A research method is simply a technique for collecting data. It can involve a specific instrument; such as a self-completion questionnaire or a structured interview schedule; or participant observation whereby the researcher listens to and watches others.
The Design of Research in Social Science
The design of research in social science can be divided into five categories depending on the purpose of the research:
1)descriptive
2)relational
3)experimental
4)quasi-experimental
5)Qualitative
However, as in the context of this class, the focus design of research will be only for descriptive and relational design.
Descriptive Research
The purpose of descriptive research is to:
- become familiar with a phenomenon,
- gain new insight;
- formulate a more refined research problem or hypothesis, or
- portray status and characteristics of a group or situation.
There are several types of descriptive research. These include survey, developmental study, follow-up study, documentary analysis, historical and trend analysis.
Among the most common types of descriptive research is the survey method.
This method is frequently used for research in the field of sociology, psychology, political science, education and management. Usually survey research does not involve the testing hypotheses about the relationship between variable. Consequently variables are not identified as independent or dependent since the variables are used to describe status only.
Using survey research,
it is possible to collect a wide scope of information from a large information through sampling.
This type of research deals with a real situation and data are collected in the actual situation.
It can serve as a first step in developing hypotheses or in identifying more specific problem for research that goes beyond description only.
The survey is usually more extensive than intensive especially if the data are collected by mailed questionnaire.
The cross-sectional research, unlike the longitudinal research, studies subject of some different characteristics at the same point in time.
One major disadvantage of this type of research is that differences between samples due to chances may seriously bias the result.
However, it is usually possible to obtain a larger sample for cross-sectional study than can be obtained for the longitudinal studies.
The advantages of this large sample, may in some cases, outweigh disadvantages of the cross-sectional approach.
Another disadvantage of a cross-sectional approach lies in the possibility of extraneous variables creating differences between the population sample.
Relational/Correlational Studies
Relational studies include correlational and causal-comparative research. Correlational studies are concerned with determining the relationship(s) existing among variables.
In this research, one collects measures on at least two variables for the same groups of subjects and then calculate coefficient of correlation between the measures. It involves no intervention or manipulation on the part of the researchers other than required to administer the instrument necessary to collect the data desired.
Causal-comparative research determines the causes for or the consequences of a phenomenon that already has taken place. This research is sometimes called ex-post facto research. It is often used instead of experimental method because many of the cause-and-effect relationship that the researchers wish to study in social science do not permit experimental manipulation.
Variables can be classified into dependent and independent variables. Depending on the nature of the study, for example in the causal relationship study, there are dependent and in dependent variables. On the other hand, an exploratory study, describing the approach used in the extension delivery system, does not have dependent and independent variables
Friday, August 26, 2011
RESEARCH REPORT
The results of a study are a little value unless they can be communicated effectively to others. Therefore, a knowledge of the procedures involved in writing a research report is important to all researchers. The following are guidelines for organizing and presenting a thesis or dissertations.
Thesis or Dissertation Components
1. Preliminary pages
a. Title page
b. Acceptance page
c. Acknowledgements
d. Table of contents
e. List of tables
f. List of figures g. Abstract
2. Introduction (Chapter 1)
a. Background of the problem
b. Statement of the problem
c. Objective
d. Significance of the study
e. Assumptions
f. Limitations
g. Definition of terms
3. Review of Literature (Chapter 2)
Theories
Relationship between variables
Theoretical and Research Framework
Hypotheses
4. Methodology (Chapter 3)
a. Research Design
b. Sampling frame
c. Population
d. Sampling technique
e. sample size
f. unit of analysis
g. Measurement and
Instrumentation
h. Validity of instrument
i. Data Collection procedures
j. Analysis of Data
5. Findings and Discussion (Chapter 4)
a. Presentation of findings
b. Interpretation of findings
c. Implications
6. Conclusions and Recommendation
(Chapter 5)
a. Conclusions
b. Recommendations for practice
c. Recommendations for further research
7. Supplementary Pages
a. Bibliography
b. Appendices
c. Vita
References
Aminah Ahmad & Maimunah Ismail (2006) Research method and design. Kuala Lumpur: Pusat Pendidikan Luar, University Putra Malaysia.
Ahmad Mahzan Ayob (1992). Kaedah penyelidikan socioekonomi (Edisi kedua). Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Ary D. Jacobs, L. C. & Razavieh, A. (1990). Introduction to research in education. (4th ed). Forth Worth: Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
Babbie, E. (2005). The practice of social research. Belmont: Wadsworth, Publishing Co.
Bryman, A., & Bell, E. (2007). Business research methods. (2nd ed). New York: Oxford University Press.
Mohd. Majid Konting (1990). Kaedah penyelidikan Pendidikan. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Merriam, S. B. (1988). Case study research in education: a qualitative approach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Miller, L.E. (Undated). AGR. EDU 885: Research methods. The Ohio State Universi
Thesis or Dissertation Components
1. Preliminary pages
a. Title page
b. Acceptance page
c. Acknowledgements
d. Table of contents
e. List of tables
f. List of figures g. Abstract
2. Introduction (Chapter 1)
a. Background of the problem
b. Statement of the problem
c. Objective
d. Significance of the study
e. Assumptions
f. Limitations
g. Definition of terms
3. Review of Literature (Chapter 2)
Theories
Relationship between variables
Theoretical and Research Framework
Hypotheses
4. Methodology (Chapter 3)
a. Research Design
b. Sampling frame
c. Population
d. Sampling technique
e. sample size
f. unit of analysis
g. Measurement and
Instrumentation
h. Validity of instrument
i. Data Collection procedures
j. Analysis of Data
5. Findings and Discussion (Chapter 4)
a. Presentation of findings
b. Interpretation of findings
c. Implications
6. Conclusions and Recommendation
(Chapter 5)
a. Conclusions
b. Recommendations for practice
c. Recommendations for further research
7. Supplementary Pages
a. Bibliography
b. Appendices
c. Vita
References
Aminah Ahmad & Maimunah Ismail (2006) Research method and design. Kuala Lumpur: Pusat Pendidikan Luar, University Putra Malaysia.
Ahmad Mahzan Ayob (1992). Kaedah penyelidikan socioekonomi (Edisi kedua). Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Ary D. Jacobs, L. C. & Razavieh, A. (1990). Introduction to research in education. (4th ed). Forth Worth: Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
Babbie, E. (2005). The practice of social research. Belmont: Wadsworth, Publishing Co.
Bryman, A., & Bell, E. (2007). Business research methods. (2nd ed). New York: Oxford University Press.
Mohd. Majid Konting (1990). Kaedah penyelidikan Pendidikan. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Merriam, S. B. (1988). Case study research in education: a qualitative approach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Miller, L.E. (Undated). AGR. EDU 885: Research methods. The Ohio State Universi
Data Gathering Instrument
Introduction
Survey method is one of the most important data collection methods in the social science which uses a questionnaire as the main data gathering instruments.
The foundation of all questionnaires is the question.
Therefore, it is important to understand how to formulate the questions in order to get the precise answers from the respondents.
Questions have to be designed in a most effective way so that all respondents have the same understanding of the questions.
Especially they must be designed according to the educational level of the respondents.
Content of Questions
Questions solicit answers. Some questions asking factual answers and some are asking opinion, feeling and attitude.
Depending on the research objective, a questionnaire may consist of two general categories of questions:
1) factual questions; and
2) opinion, feeling and attitude question
It is advisable to mix different categories of questions to prevent monotony and to validate certain answers which can be answered in different forms.
Type of questions
Questions can be put forward in many different ways structurally. There are basically four different structures:
1) open-ended questions
- These type of questions are normally used to solicit feeling, opinion or attitude of the respondents.
- There are no specific answers to the questions and the questions are left open without writing any suggestions to be answered
2) closed-ended questions
these type of questions requires respondents to choose specific answerers suggested in the questions. The respondents may choose one or more than one answers given.
3) dichotomous questions
require respondents to answer either one of the answers.
For example, respondents are asked whether they like to watch TV or not, true or false, or yes or no.
4) contingency questions
contingency questions - questions prepared for a special subgroup of respondents because some questions are not relevant to all the respondents.
Therefore, special contingency questions have to be formulated
For example, the first question is “do you have a child/children?” if the response is “Yes,” he or she will be instructed to go to question no 5, instead answering the following question which is no, 2, 3 and 4. But those who answer, “No” have to answer the following questions.
Question Format
There are many different formats in designing closed-ended questions.
The most important thing to do:
to give clear instructions on how to answer the questions.
to give an example on how to answer certain questions.
Question formats are: rating, matrix questions, card sort, semantic differential and ranking.
Sequence of Questions
Different cultures may have sensitivity in answering certain questions in a questionnaire.
Therefore, the sequence of the questions must be politically correct.
Some sensitive and difficult questions have to be placed toward the end of the questionnaire
Survey method is one of the most important data collection methods in the social science which uses a questionnaire as the main data gathering instruments.
The foundation of all questionnaires is the question.
Therefore, it is important to understand how to formulate the questions in order to get the precise answers from the respondents.
Questions have to be designed in a most effective way so that all respondents have the same understanding of the questions.
Especially they must be designed according to the educational level of the respondents.
Content of Questions
Questions solicit answers. Some questions asking factual answers and some are asking opinion, feeling and attitude.
Depending on the research objective, a questionnaire may consist of two general categories of questions:
1) factual questions; and
2) opinion, feeling and attitude question
It is advisable to mix different categories of questions to prevent monotony and to validate certain answers which can be answered in different forms.
Type of questions
Questions can be put forward in many different ways structurally. There are basically four different structures:
1) open-ended questions
- These type of questions are normally used to solicit feeling, opinion or attitude of the respondents.
- There are no specific answers to the questions and the questions are left open without writing any suggestions to be answered
2) closed-ended questions
these type of questions requires respondents to choose specific answerers suggested in the questions. The respondents may choose one or more than one answers given.
3) dichotomous questions
require respondents to answer either one of the answers.
For example, respondents are asked whether they like to watch TV or not, true or false, or yes or no.
4) contingency questions
contingency questions - questions prepared for a special subgroup of respondents because some questions are not relevant to all the respondents.
Therefore, special contingency questions have to be formulated
For example, the first question is “do you have a child/children?” if the response is “Yes,” he or she will be instructed to go to question no 5, instead answering the following question which is no, 2, 3 and 4. But those who answer, “No” have to answer the following questions.
Question Format
There are many different formats in designing closed-ended questions.
The most important thing to do:
to give clear instructions on how to answer the questions.
to give an example on how to answer certain questions.
Question formats are: rating, matrix questions, card sort, semantic differential and ranking.
Sequence of Questions
Different cultures may have sensitivity in answering certain questions in a questionnaire.
Therefore, the sequence of the questions must be politically correct.
Some sensitive and difficult questions have to be placed toward the end of the questionnaire
The Different Level of Measurement Scales - the Interval and Ratio Scales
Interval Scale
Interval data possesses all the properties of ordinal scale with one additional property. This property is that the differences between the various levels of the categories on any part of the scale reflect equal differences in the characteristics measured. That is, equal unit is established in the scale (sometimes referred to as equal unit scale).
An example of interval scale is temperature. The properties of interval data are as follows:
1. data categories are mutually exclusive
2. data categories have some logical order.
3. data categories are scaled according to the amount of the particular characteristics they possess.
4. equal differences in the characteristics are represented by equal differences in the numbers assigned to the categories.
5. the point zero is just another point on the scale.
Ratio Scale
The highest level in the hierarchy of measurement scale. The scale has one property in addition to the properties listed above for the interval scale. This property is a known or true zero point that reflects an absence of the characteristics measured. Examples of ratio scales are income, age, weight, height, score, etc.
The properties of ratio data are as follows:
1. data categories are mutually exclusive
2. data categories have some logical order.
3. data categories are scaled according to the amount of the particular characteristics they possess.
4. equal differences in the characteristics are represented by equal differences in the numbers assigned to the categories.
5. the point zero reflects an absence of the characteristic.
Interval data possesses all the properties of ordinal scale with one additional property. This property is that the differences between the various levels of the categories on any part of the scale reflect equal differences in the characteristics measured. That is, equal unit is established in the scale (sometimes referred to as equal unit scale).
An example of interval scale is temperature. The properties of interval data are as follows:
1. data categories are mutually exclusive
2. data categories have some logical order.
3. data categories are scaled according to the amount of the particular characteristics they possess.
4. equal differences in the characteristics are represented by equal differences in the numbers assigned to the categories.
5. the point zero is just another point on the scale.
Ratio Scale
The highest level in the hierarchy of measurement scale. The scale has one property in addition to the properties listed above for the interval scale. This property is a known or true zero point that reflects an absence of the characteristics measured. Examples of ratio scales are income, age, weight, height, score, etc.
The properties of ratio data are as follows:
1. data categories are mutually exclusive
2. data categories have some logical order.
3. data categories are scaled according to the amount of the particular characteristics they possess.
4. equal differences in the characteristics are represented by equal differences in the numbers assigned to the categories.
5. the point zero reflects an absence of the characteristic.
The Different Level of Measurement Scales - the Nominal and Ordinal Scales
Four levels of measurement scales include the nominal scale, the ordinal scale, the interval scale and the ratio scale.
Nominal scale
Nominal measurement is the process of classifying different objects into categories based upon some defined characteristics. Examples are sex, color of hair/eyes, ethnic background, makes of car and so on. The properties of nominal data are as follows:
1. data categories are mutually exclusive (an object can belong to only one category).
2. data categories have no logical order.
In summary, a nominal scale simply classifies without order.
Ordinal scale
with the ordinal scale, one additional property is present over those of the nominal scale--a logical ordering of the categories. The variable measured is such that differences in the amount of the characteristics possessed is discernible.
Examples are:
- course grade: A, B+, B, C+ C, D and F
- level of satisfaction: low, medium and high
The properties of ordinal data are as follows:
1. data categories are mutually exclusive
2. data categories have some logical order
3. data categories are scaled according to the amount of the particular characteristics they possess
Nominal scale
Nominal measurement is the process of classifying different objects into categories based upon some defined characteristics. Examples are sex, color of hair/eyes, ethnic background, makes of car and so on. The properties of nominal data are as follows:
1. data categories are mutually exclusive (an object can belong to only one category).
2. data categories have no logical order.
In summary, a nominal scale simply classifies without order.
Ordinal scale
with the ordinal scale, one additional property is present over those of the nominal scale--a logical ordering of the categories. The variable measured is such that differences in the amount of the characteristics possessed is discernible.
Examples are:
- course grade: A, B+, B, C+ C, D and F
- level of satisfaction: low, medium and high
The properties of ordinal data are as follows:
1. data categories are mutually exclusive
2. data categories have some logical order
3. data categories are scaled according to the amount of the particular characteristics they possess
Measurement
Measurement in the broadest sense is a process of assigning numbers to characteristics according to a defined rule. Not all measurement is the same. Measuring individuals' weight is not the same as measuring their opinions on some topic in terms of agreement or disagreement.
Consideration of the measurement scale is important when contemplating the use of statistics. The measurement scale of the DV is one of the more important factors in determining the appropriate statistical methods used to analyse the data of a particular research study.
Certain characteristics in the social/behaviour sciences are more amenable to precise measurement than others. For example, we can measure an individual's weight very precisely. On the other hand, it is more difficult to measure precisely the anxiety level of individual.
Consideration of the measurement scale is important when contemplating the use of statistics. The measurement scale of the DV is one of the more important factors in determining the appropriate statistical methods used to analyse the data of a particular research study.
Certain characteristics in the social/behaviour sciences are more amenable to precise measurement than others. For example, we can measure an individual's weight very precisely. On the other hand, it is more difficult to measure precisely the anxiety level of individual.
Independent and Dependent Variables
Independent Variables (IV)
-are the one over which the researcher has control and the ones that are manipulated in accordance with the purpose of the investigation.
In some research studies, the IV is simply a classifying variable; it classifies the individuals under study. For example, consider an investigation in which three different training methods are studied in terms of their effects upon technical skills learned. Training method would be the IV and three training methods would be considered levels of the IV.
Dependent variables (DV)
-are (or presumed to be) the consequent of the IV(s).
It is the variable affected by the IV. As the IV is changed or varied, the researcher observes the changes in the DV in order to determine how they are related to or associated with the changes in the IV. In the above example, technical skills learned would be the DV.
-are the one over which the researcher has control and the ones that are manipulated in accordance with the purpose of the investigation.
In some research studies, the IV is simply a classifying variable; it classifies the individuals under study. For example, consider an investigation in which three different training methods are studied in terms of their effects upon technical skills learned. Training method would be the IV and three training methods would be considered levels of the IV.
Dependent variables (DV)
-are (or presumed to be) the consequent of the IV(s).
It is the variable affected by the IV. As the IV is changed or varied, the researcher observes the changes in the DV in order to determine how they are related to or associated with the changes in the IV. In the above example, technical skills learned would be the DV.
Categories of variables
continuous and discrete variables
Continuous variables
a continuous variable is one that can take on any values on the measurement scale under consideration. Examples of continuous variables are weight, height, income, age, etc.
We sometimes refer to a continuous variable as one that has underlying continuity. That is, there are no breaks in the possible values it can assume.
Discrete variables
As opposed to a continuous variable, a discrete variable can take on only designated values. For example, number of cars a household possessed. This variable can take on only integer value, that is 1, 2, 3 and son on. There can be no fractional value at any one time.
Continuous variables
a continuous variable is one that can take on any values on the measurement scale under consideration. Examples of continuous variables are weight, height, income, age, etc.
We sometimes refer to a continuous variable as one that has underlying continuity. That is, there are no breaks in the possible values it can assume.
Discrete variables
As opposed to a continuous variable, a discrete variable can take on only designated values. For example, number of cars a household possessed. This variable can take on only integer value, that is 1, 2, 3 and son on. There can be no fractional value at any one time.
What is variable?
A variable is a characteristic that can take on different values for different members of the group under study.
For example, a group of university freshman will be found to differ in sex, height, intelligence, attitudes, and many other ways. These characteristics aer called variables.
On the other hand, if a characteristic is the same for every member of the group, this characteristic is referred to as a constant. since all the students in this example are freshmen, the characteristics of status of university student is a constant.
For example, a group of university freshman will be found to differ in sex, height, intelligence, attitudes, and many other ways. These characteristics aer called variables.
On the other hand, if a characteristic is the same for every member of the group, this characteristic is referred to as a constant. since all the students in this example are freshmen, the characteristics of status of university student is a constant.
PLEASE COMPLETE PART II OF STRESS ASSIGNMENT
Salam
I have noted most of you have not finish the given assignment on stress. For the two hours today, please complete part two of given questions. Otherwise, the respective penalty will be imposed on your grading. Thank you.
I have noted most of you have not finish the given assignment on stress. For the two hours today, please complete part two of given questions. Otherwise, the respective penalty will be imposed on your grading. Thank you.
TRY THIS
Answer ALL questions.
Knowledge-based economy appears to be influenced by challenges from increasing globalization as well as concerns about intense competition for foreign direct investment particularly from relatively labor surplus and low-waged economies in the region and elsewhere. The move towards knowledge-based economy as has been pointed out earlier by the ex-Prime Minister, Tun Mahathir Mohamad is part of a wider plan to become a fully developed and knowledge-rich nation by 2020. As agreed by Scarborough, Swan and Preston, (1999), Sohraby and Abedin (2005), Adnan and Khairul (2005), knowledge-based efforts have been primarily focused on developing new applications of information technology, complemented to a lesser degree with implementing new organizational forms. The link between issues on managing knowledge and strategy and the impact of these variables toward the performance of the organization, has basically been overlooked and unfortunately, not well-developed into corporate strategy and generally not even considered (Raja Suzana 2002, 2004; Kalling, 2003; Tsai, 2001). In order to develop Malaysia’s private companies to enhance their organizational performance, they need to make their objectives and practices consistent with organization’s vision and policy.
Due to limited empirical sources on the strategic linking between knowledge issues and corporate strategic agenda of organizations, this study focuses primarily on the influence of managing knowledge as a key moderating variable. The theoretical model used in this study will focus on the empirical data among the public-listed organizations comprised of consumer products, the industrial products and the services industries in the Main Board of Bursa Malaysia.
a. Write the problem statement for the above situation. (5 marks)
b. Identify 2 (two) research objectives. (2 marks)
c. Write 4 (four) research questions to be addressed in the situation above. (4 marks)
d. Construct a conceptual framework using the information given above. Label all variables accordingly. Provide a title for the framework. (13 marks)
e. Formulate 2 (two) research hypothesis from the framework drawn. (4 marks)
Knowledge-based economy appears to be influenced by challenges from increasing globalization as well as concerns about intense competition for foreign direct investment particularly from relatively labor surplus and low-waged economies in the region and elsewhere. The move towards knowledge-based economy as has been pointed out earlier by the ex-Prime Minister, Tun Mahathir Mohamad is part of a wider plan to become a fully developed and knowledge-rich nation by 2020. As agreed by Scarborough, Swan and Preston, (1999), Sohraby and Abedin (2005), Adnan and Khairul (2005), knowledge-based efforts have been primarily focused on developing new applications of information technology, complemented to a lesser degree with implementing new organizational forms. The link between issues on managing knowledge and strategy and the impact of these variables toward the performance of the organization, has basically been overlooked and unfortunately, not well-developed into corporate strategy and generally not even considered (Raja Suzana 2002, 2004; Kalling, 2003; Tsai, 2001). In order to develop Malaysia’s private companies to enhance their organizational performance, they need to make their objectives and practices consistent with organization’s vision and policy.
Due to limited empirical sources on the strategic linking between knowledge issues and corporate strategic agenda of organizations, this study focuses primarily on the influence of managing knowledge as a key moderating variable. The theoretical model used in this study will focus on the empirical data among the public-listed organizations comprised of consumer products, the industrial products and the services industries in the Main Board of Bursa Malaysia.
a. Write the problem statement for the above situation. (5 marks)
b. Identify 2 (two) research objectives. (2 marks)
c. Write 4 (four) research questions to be addressed in the situation above. (4 marks)
d. Construct a conceptual framework using the information given above. Label all variables accordingly. Provide a title for the framework. (13 marks)
e. Formulate 2 (two) research hypothesis from the framework drawn. (4 marks)
HYPOTHESES IN RESEARCH
The building blocks of hypotheses are variables.
A variable is anything that varies, changes, or has differences.
Something that never changes is called a constant. Variables that only have two extremes are called attributes. In social science research, we deal mostly with two types of variables:
independent and dependent. Independent variables are those things thought to be the cause or bring about change in other variables. Dependent variables are those things changed or affected by independent variables, sometimes through other variables. Independent variables always come before dependent variables in time and space.
Hypotheses are simply if-then sentences that can be categorized in certain logical forms, such as no difference (null hypothesis), associated difference, directionality of difference, and magnitude of difference. A good hypothesis implies all these in a single sentence, and the trick is to express them as briefly as possible and in simple English. Let's take a look at how this is done:
Differences in Variable A have no relationship to differences in Variable B (null hypothesis)
If Variable A changes, then Variable B changes, or
There is a relationship between Variable A and Variable B, orVariable A affects Variable B (all examples of associated difference, sometimes callednondirectional hypotheses)
If Variable A increases, then Variable B increases, orIf Variable A decreases, then Variable B decreases (both examples of directional hypotheses)
but you can also have inverse relationships, such asIf Variable A increases, then Variable B decreases, orIf Variable A decreases, then Variable B increases
If Variable A increases by 2 points (12% or whatever), then Variable B increases by 3 points (or whatever) (magnitude of difference)
and, you can also have directionality with magnitude in an inverse relationship, as in
If Variable A decreases by 5%, then Variable increases by 3%.
The point is that the more specific you make your hypotheses, the better. Not only may you be able to use more powerful statistics, but you will be engaging in what is called confirmatory research, instead of what is called exploratory research. The more your topic has been previously researched by others, the more it is expected that you will use confirmatory research.
Exploratory research is used only in previously uncharted areas, or by those who honestly don't know anything about their topic. You'll note that the last example above contains all the elements of previous examples, so you can always drop down to a less rigorous hypothesis, but you can't or shouldn't move up to a more specific one after you've already done your research.
Also, the null hypothesis remains unstated or implied as no differences, no matter how complex your other (called alternative) hypotheses get. Technically, all statistical tests are tests of the null hypothesis first, which is rejected in favor of degrees of confidence in the alternatives. An important part of the research process that goes along with hypothesis formulation is constructing your operational definitions. These are definitions of your variables for research purposes. They are important so others can understand and replicate your research.
Researchers need to define their variables very precisely, especially the dependent variables. If "crime" is your dependent variable, you need to be very precise about exactly what kind of crime you have in mind: violent crime; property crime; vice crime; etc.
A variable is anything that varies, changes, or has differences.
Something that never changes is called a constant. Variables that only have two extremes are called attributes. In social science research, we deal mostly with two types of variables:
independent and dependent. Independent variables are those things thought to be the cause or bring about change in other variables. Dependent variables are those things changed or affected by independent variables, sometimes through other variables. Independent variables always come before dependent variables in time and space.
Hypotheses are simply if-then sentences that can be categorized in certain logical forms, such as no difference (null hypothesis), associated difference, directionality of difference, and magnitude of difference. A good hypothesis implies all these in a single sentence, and the trick is to express them as briefly as possible and in simple English. Let's take a look at how this is done:
Differences in Variable A have no relationship to differences in Variable B (null hypothesis)
If Variable A changes, then Variable B changes, or
There is a relationship between Variable A and Variable B, orVariable A affects Variable B (all examples of associated difference, sometimes callednondirectional hypotheses)
If Variable A increases, then Variable B increases, orIf Variable A decreases, then Variable B decreases (both examples of directional hypotheses)
but you can also have inverse relationships, such asIf Variable A increases, then Variable B decreases, orIf Variable A decreases, then Variable B increases
If Variable A increases by 2 points (12% or whatever), then Variable B increases by 3 points (or whatever) (magnitude of difference)
and, you can also have directionality with magnitude in an inverse relationship, as in
If Variable A decreases by 5%, then Variable increases by 3%.
The point is that the more specific you make your hypotheses, the better. Not only may you be able to use more powerful statistics, but you will be engaging in what is called confirmatory research, instead of what is called exploratory research. The more your topic has been previously researched by others, the more it is expected that you will use confirmatory research.
Exploratory research is used only in previously uncharted areas, or by those who honestly don't know anything about their topic. You'll note that the last example above contains all the elements of previous examples, so you can always drop down to a less rigorous hypothesis, but you can't or shouldn't move up to a more specific one after you've already done your research.
Also, the null hypothesis remains unstated or implied as no differences, no matter how complex your other (called alternative) hypotheses get. Technically, all statistical tests are tests of the null hypothesis first, which is rejected in favor of degrees of confidence in the alternatives. An important part of the research process that goes along with hypothesis formulation is constructing your operational definitions. These are definitions of your variables for research purposes. They are important so others can understand and replicate your research.
Researchers need to define their variables very precisely, especially the dependent variables. If "crime" is your dependent variable, you need to be very precise about exactly what kind of crime you have in mind: violent crime; property crime; vice crime; etc.
MODULE 3 - RESEARCH PROBLEM
This module discusses one of the most important aspects of research in any field. It covers the nature of the problem, sources of problem, evaluation of the problem and statement of the problem.
Nature of the problem
A research problem is a gap in knowledge about a phenomenon that one wishes to describe or an event that one attempts to explain or find a solution. The research problem is often phrased as a question that needs to be answered. The process of problem identification involves refining and narrowing the topic of interest
Sources of problem
The first question most students ask is “How do I find a research problem?”
Although there are no set rules for locating a problem, certain suggestions have been found to be helpful. Three important sources of problems are experience, deductions from theory and related literature.
Everyday experience is a useful source of a research problem. Most of the research ideas developed by researchers tend to come from their personal experiences. For instance, a researcher with an interest in human resource development encounters a problem with regard to the effectiveness of a training program conducted in his or her organization. This serves as a source of problem for investigation.
The deduction that can be made from various theories with which the researcher is familiar. This provides an excellent source of problem. There are learning theories, personality theories, sociological theories, psychological theories, theories of social development and many others, whose validity, scope and practicality might be justifiable tested n social situations. Similarly, in the field of training, learning theories could be tested in training situations and this serves as a useful starting point for research.
Another valuable source of a research problem is the literature in one’s own area of interest. In reading about previous research, we are exposed to gaps in knowledge or research problems that need further attention. These are often suggested by previous researchers.
Evaluation of the problem
In the process of evaluating the significance of the problem, there are certain criteria which should be considered. A research problem should be one whose solution will make a contribution to the body of knowledge in a particular field. It should be one that will lead to a new problem and to enhance further research. Another criteria is that the problem must be one that is researchable. Also, the problem must be suitable for the particular researcher, in terms of his/her interest (i.e. researcher’s knowledge, feasibility of doing the research, and is achievable within the allotted time).
Statement of the problem
A good statement of problem must clarify exactly what is to be determined or sought and restrict the scope of the study to a specific question. Novice researchers often have a general idea of the problem, but have trouble formulating it as a workable research question. In stating the problem, the researcher must strive for a balance between generality and specificity. The problem must not be so narrow that it becomes trivial and meaningless. One wants a problem that is broad enough to be significant yet specific enough to be feasible in one’s particular situation.
A problem should be stated in such a way that research into the question is possible. Avoid philosophical issues, as well as value or judgmental question that cannot be answered by scientific investigation. The development of a workable problem is an evolutionary process involving many attempts to sharpen concepts, defines operation, and consider ways of collecting data.
Identifying the population and variables
A good strategy for shaping a felt problem into a researchable problem is to think it in terms of population and variables. Population refers to those people about whom one wishes to investigate the research problem.
The specific nature of the population depends on the purpose of the investigation. For instance, if the investigation is on the digital divide among FELDA settlers/citizens in rural areas in Malaysia, therefore, the population of the study will be all FELDA settlers/citizens in rural areas in Malaysia.
In stating the problem, one has to identify the variables (characteristics or attributes) of the population that one wishes to study. Examples of variables include the effective the training program, the training design, the training methodology, teaching and learning technologies, etc.
Variables can be classified into dependent and independent variables. Depending on the nature of the study, for example in the causal relationship study, there are dependent and in dependent variables. On the other hand, an exploratory study, describing the approach used in the extension delivery system, does not have dependent and independent variables.
REFERENCES
Aminah Ahmad & Maimunah Ismail (2006) Research method and design. Kuala Lumpur: Pusat Pendidikan Luar, University Putra Malaysia.
Ary D. Jacobs, L. C. & Razavieh, A. (1990). Introduction to research in education. (4th ed). Forth Worth: Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
Babbie, E. (2005). The practice of social research. Belmont: Wadsworth, Publishing Co.
Bryman, A., & Bell, E. (2003). Business research methods. (2nd ed). New York: Oxford University Press.
Mohd. Majid Konting (1990). Kaedah penyelidikan Pendidikan. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Merriam, S. B. (1988). Case study research in education: a qualitative approach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Nature of the problem
A research problem is a gap in knowledge about a phenomenon that one wishes to describe or an event that one attempts to explain or find a solution. The research problem is often phrased as a question that needs to be answered. The process of problem identification involves refining and narrowing the topic of interest
Sources of problem
The first question most students ask is “How do I find a research problem?”
Although there are no set rules for locating a problem, certain suggestions have been found to be helpful. Three important sources of problems are experience, deductions from theory and related literature.
Everyday experience is a useful source of a research problem. Most of the research ideas developed by researchers tend to come from their personal experiences. For instance, a researcher with an interest in human resource development encounters a problem with regard to the effectiveness of a training program conducted in his or her organization. This serves as a source of problem for investigation.
The deduction that can be made from various theories with which the researcher is familiar. This provides an excellent source of problem. There are learning theories, personality theories, sociological theories, psychological theories, theories of social development and many others, whose validity, scope and practicality might be justifiable tested n social situations. Similarly, in the field of training, learning theories could be tested in training situations and this serves as a useful starting point for research.
Another valuable source of a research problem is the literature in one’s own area of interest. In reading about previous research, we are exposed to gaps in knowledge or research problems that need further attention. These are often suggested by previous researchers.
Evaluation of the problem
In the process of evaluating the significance of the problem, there are certain criteria which should be considered. A research problem should be one whose solution will make a contribution to the body of knowledge in a particular field. It should be one that will lead to a new problem and to enhance further research. Another criteria is that the problem must be one that is researchable. Also, the problem must be suitable for the particular researcher, in terms of his/her interest (i.e. researcher’s knowledge, feasibility of doing the research, and is achievable within the allotted time).
Statement of the problem
A good statement of problem must clarify exactly what is to be determined or sought and restrict the scope of the study to a specific question. Novice researchers often have a general idea of the problem, but have trouble formulating it as a workable research question. In stating the problem, the researcher must strive for a balance between generality and specificity. The problem must not be so narrow that it becomes trivial and meaningless. One wants a problem that is broad enough to be significant yet specific enough to be feasible in one’s particular situation.
A problem should be stated in such a way that research into the question is possible. Avoid philosophical issues, as well as value or judgmental question that cannot be answered by scientific investigation. The development of a workable problem is an evolutionary process involving many attempts to sharpen concepts, defines operation, and consider ways of collecting data.
Identifying the population and variables
A good strategy for shaping a felt problem into a researchable problem is to think it in terms of population and variables. Population refers to those people about whom one wishes to investigate the research problem.
The specific nature of the population depends on the purpose of the investigation. For instance, if the investigation is on the digital divide among FELDA settlers/citizens in rural areas in Malaysia, therefore, the population of the study will be all FELDA settlers/citizens in rural areas in Malaysia.
In stating the problem, one has to identify the variables (characteristics or attributes) of the population that one wishes to study. Examples of variables include the effective the training program, the training design, the training methodology, teaching and learning technologies, etc.
Variables can be classified into dependent and independent variables. Depending on the nature of the study, for example in the causal relationship study, there are dependent and in dependent variables. On the other hand, an exploratory study, describing the approach used in the extension delivery system, does not have dependent and independent variables.
REFERENCES
Aminah Ahmad & Maimunah Ismail (2006) Research method and design. Kuala Lumpur: Pusat Pendidikan Luar, University Putra Malaysia.
Ary D. Jacobs, L. C. & Razavieh, A. (1990). Introduction to research in education. (4th ed). Forth Worth: Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
Babbie, E. (2005). The practice of social research. Belmont: Wadsworth, Publishing Co.
Bryman, A., & Bell, E. (2003). Business research methods. (2nd ed). New York: Oxford University Press.
Mohd. Majid Konting (1990). Kaedah penyelidikan Pendidikan. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Merriam, S. B. (1988). Case study research in education: a qualitative approach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
MODULE 2 - THE RESEARCH PROCESS
INTRODUCTION
In this module, the research process introduces the process of scientific research covering components such as research problem, methodology and findings. One has to familiarize with these components before embarking on a research. This section gives an overview of the entire research process and the research proposal outline.
Overview of Research Process
1) identifying research problem
2) review of literature
3) objectives and hypotheses
4) measurement of variables
5) validity and reliability
6) research instrument
7) population and sampling
8) data gathering
9) data analysis
10) interpreting results
11) report writing
Research proposal
It is a document or blueprint prepared prior to conducting a research. The purposes are to justify the rationale for the research and planning for the design, budgeting and resource utilization.
Research proposal outline
Cover page
Table of contents
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Background of the study
Statement of the problem
Research objectives
Research questions
Significance of the study
Limitations of the study
Definition of terms
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Definitions
Sub topics (includes of independent and dependent variables of interest)
- it gives an account of what is already known and relevant in the area of interest. It serves in defining the frontiers of the research area and placing the research questions in perspective).
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Research design
Sampling frame
Population
Sampling technique
Sample size
Unit of analysis
Instrument
Validity of instrument
Data collection procedures
Plan for data analysis
In this module, the research process introduces the process of scientific research covering components such as research problem, methodology and findings. One has to familiarize with these components before embarking on a research. This section gives an overview of the entire research process and the research proposal outline.
Overview of Research Process
1) identifying research problem
2) review of literature
3) objectives and hypotheses
4) measurement of variables
5) validity and reliability
6) research instrument
7) population and sampling
8) data gathering
9) data analysis
10) interpreting results
11) report writing
Research proposal
It is a document or blueprint prepared prior to conducting a research. The purposes are to justify the rationale for the research and planning for the design, budgeting and resource utilization.
Research proposal outline
Cover page
Table of contents
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Background of the study
Statement of the problem
Research objectives
Research questions
Significance of the study
Limitations of the study
Definition of terms
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Definitions
Sub topics (includes of independent and dependent variables of interest)
- it gives an account of what is already known and relevant in the area of interest. It serves in defining the frontiers of the research area and placing the research questions in perspective).
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Research design
Sampling frame
Population
Sampling technique
Sample size
Unit of analysis
Instrument
Validity of instrument
Data collection procedures
Plan for data analysis
PART 1 - Contents
Learning Objectives
Module 1: Research As A Scientific Approach
Introduction
What Is Research
Sources of Knowledge
Nature of Science
Characteristics of Research
Types of Research
Module 2: The Research Process
Introduction
Overview of Research Process
Research Proposal
Research Proposal Outline
Module 3: The Research Problem
Introduction
Nature of Problem
Sources of Problem
Evaluating the Problem
Statement of Problem
Identifying the Population and Variables
References
Module 1: Research As A Scientific Approach
Introduction
What Is Research
Sources of Knowledge
Nature of Science
Characteristics of Research
Types of Research
Module 2: The Research Process
Introduction
Overview of Research Process
Research Proposal
Research Proposal Outline
Module 3: The Research Problem
Introduction
Nature of Problem
Sources of Problem
Evaluating the Problem
Statement of Problem
Identifying the Population and Variables
References
MODULE 1 - RESEARCH AS A SCIENTIFIC APPROACH
Introduction
This topic introduces concept of research as a scientific approach and the relevance of this approach to the search for knowledge. It also includes characteristics of research and types of research as well as the purpose of each research type.
WHAT IS RESEARCH?
It involves the gathering of new data or using existing data for solving a problem.
A systematic investigation to increase knowledge and understanding, always applying rigorous logical analysis.
A discipline guided by both technique and philosophy of science.
Research places emphasis upon the development of sound theories or upon the discovery of general principles that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences.
Through these conceptualizations we can arrive at a common understanding about research – Research is a systematic process by which data are gathered and analyzed through carefully designed procedures to generate new knowledge and solve an identified problem.
SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
personal experiences, tradition, expert opinions, and the scientific approach.
Experiences and traditions suggest possible ways to proceed in inquiring knowledge but the answers they provide are not always reliable. Experience is subject to personal interpretation which can vary depending on situation and perception.
Tradition can be fallible since it is inherited based on personal opinions of other people through generations.
Experts have shortcomings too. No expert, however, has studied or experienced all there is to know in a given field, and thus can never be totally sure.
Given the drawbacks in these three approaches the most reliable alternative in acquiring knowledge is through a more systematic and empirical means using inductive-deductive method, or the scientific approach.
NATURE OF SCIENCE
Science refers to a systematic knowledge of natural or physical phenomena. There are two essential elements in science toward arriving at truth; rationality and observation. Truth can be ultimately derived from observation, experiment, and logical induction and deduction. A fundamental assumption of the scientific approach is that events investigated are lawful and predictable.
Characteristics of Research
The characteristics of research are summarized as follows (cited in Miller, undated)
1) gathering new data or using existing data for a new purpose from primary or first-hand sources. Teachers frequently assign a so-called ‘research project’ that involves writing a paper dealing with the life of a prominent person. The students are expected to read a number of encyclopedias, books, or periodical references and synthesize the information in a written report. This is not research, for the data are not new. Merely reorganizing or restating what is already known and what has already been written is not research, valuable as it might be as a learning experience. It adds nothing to what is known
2)Research is directed toward the solution of a problem. A problem states a relationship between two or more variables. One variable may be an effect. Research always involves an analysis of the relationships between causes and effects which imply the possibilities of empirical testing. Certain interesting problems do not lend themselves to research procedures because they are metaphysical; they cannot be tested empirically.
Research rejects revelations and dogma as methods of gaining reliable knowledge and accepts only what can be verified by observation.
Research is more than information retrieval – the simple gathering, computation and organization of statistical information. Although many school research departments gather and tabulate factual information that may be useful in decision making, these activities are not properly termed research.
3)Although research activity may, at times, be somewhat unsystematic, it is more often characterized by carefully designed procedures, always applying rigorous logical analysis. Although trial and error are often involved, research is rarely the result of blind shotgun investigation – trying something to see what happens.
4)Research places emphasis upon the development of sound theories or upon the discovery of general principles that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences, research goes beyond the specific objects, groups, or situations investigated, and infers qualities of a target population from those observed in a sample group
5)Research requires expertise. The researcher knows what is already known about the problem under investigation. He or she has researched the related literature carefully. He or she is thoroughly grounded in the terminology, the concepts, and the technology necessary to understand and analyze the problem
6)Research involves accurate observation and description. The researcher uses quantitative, numerical measuring devices, the most precise means of description. He or she selects or devises valid data-gathering instruments, and employs appropriate mechanical, electronic, or psychometric devices to improve on the accuracy of human observation, recording, computation, and analysis of data
7)Research is logical and objective, applying every possible test to validate the procedures employed, the data collected, and the conclusion reached. The researcher strives to eliminate personal feeling and bias. There is no attempt to persuade or to prove an emotionally-held conviction. The emphasis is on testing (probing) rather than on proving the hypothesis. Although absolute objectivity is probably as elusive as pure righteousness, the researcher tries to suppress bias and emotion in the analysis.
8)Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity. Research is rarely a pectacular activity and the researcher must expect disappointment and discouragement in pursuing the answers to difficult questions. The researcher must suspend judgment to permit the logical analysis of data to lead to sound conclusions.
9)Research sometimes requires courage. The researcher must be willing to follow procedures to conclusions that may be unpopular and that may bring social disapproval. The Polish scientist Copernicus (1473 – 1543) was condemned by church authorities when he announced his conclusion concerning the nature of the solar system. His theory that the sun, not the earth, was the center of the solar system, in direct conflict with the older Ptolematic theory, angered supporters of prevailing religious dogma, who viewed his theory as a denial of the story of creation as described in the book of Genesis
10)Research is carefully recorded and reported. Every important term is carefully defined, limiting factors are recognized, procedures are described in detail, references are carefully documented, results are faithfully recorded, and conclusions are presented cautiously and with scholarly restraint. The written report with accompanying data is made available for the scrutiny for associates or other scholars. Any competent reader of the report will have the information necessary to analyze and evaluate the process and the conclusions reached. The report will be presented in sufficient detail so the investigation could be replicated for the purpose of verification.
Types of Research
Generally there are five general types of research. Each has its own purpose. The types are:
1) Descriptive
2) Relational
3) Experimental
4) Quasi-experimental
5) Qualitative
The purpose of description research is to become familiar with a phenomenon, to gain new insight, or to portray status and characteristics of a group or situation. The types of descriptive research include survey, development study, follow-up study, documentary analysis, historical, and trend analysis.
Relational studies include correlational and causal-comparative research.
Correlational studies are concerned with determining the relationship(s) existing among variables.
Causal-comparative research determines the cause for or consequences of a phenomenon that already has taken place. This research is also called the ex-post-facto research
An experimental research establishes different treatments and then studies their effects.
In this research the researcher controls one or more independent variables and observes the effect of these manipulations on the dependent variable(s).
When full control over the scheduling of experimental conditions and randomization cannot always be realized, then one has to resort to quasi-experimental research
Qualitative research is an inquiry mode that emphasizes description, induction, grounded theory, and the story of people’s understanding. As the term implies, qualitative research does not primarily deal with numbers as data and in analysis of data. The main purpose of qualitative inquiry is to “seek for insight, discovery, and interpretation rather than hypothesis testing” (Merriam, 1988, p. 10). In another words, qualitative research seeks meaning of a phenomenon for those involved in depth rather than in breadth.
The approach concerns with understanding the behavior and how people make sense out of their lives. Some characteristics of qualitative research are as follows (Merriam, 1988, p. 19-20):
1)Qualitative researchers are concerned primarily with process, rather than outcomes or products.
2)Qualitative researchers are interested in meaning – how people make sense of their lives, experiences, and their structures of the world.
3)The qualitative researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis. Data are mediated through this human instrument, rather than through inventories, questionnaires, or machines.
4)Qualitative research involves fieldwork. The researcher physically goes to the people, setting, site or institution to observe or record behavior in its natural setting
5)Qualitative research is descriptive in that the researcher is interested in process, meaning, and understanding gained through words or pictures
6)The process of qualitative research is inductive in that the researcher builds abstractions, concepts, hypothesis and theories from details
This topic introduces concept of research as a scientific approach and the relevance of this approach to the search for knowledge. It also includes characteristics of research and types of research as well as the purpose of each research type.
WHAT IS RESEARCH?
It involves the gathering of new data or using existing data for solving a problem.
A systematic investigation to increase knowledge and understanding, always applying rigorous logical analysis.
A discipline guided by both technique and philosophy of science.
Research places emphasis upon the development of sound theories or upon the discovery of general principles that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences.
Through these conceptualizations we can arrive at a common understanding about research – Research is a systematic process by which data are gathered and analyzed through carefully designed procedures to generate new knowledge and solve an identified problem.
SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
personal experiences, tradition, expert opinions, and the scientific approach.
Experiences and traditions suggest possible ways to proceed in inquiring knowledge but the answers they provide are not always reliable. Experience is subject to personal interpretation which can vary depending on situation and perception.
Tradition can be fallible since it is inherited based on personal opinions of other people through generations.
Experts have shortcomings too. No expert, however, has studied or experienced all there is to know in a given field, and thus can never be totally sure.
Given the drawbacks in these three approaches the most reliable alternative in acquiring knowledge is through a more systematic and empirical means using inductive-deductive method, or the scientific approach.
NATURE OF SCIENCE
Science refers to a systematic knowledge of natural or physical phenomena. There are two essential elements in science toward arriving at truth; rationality and observation. Truth can be ultimately derived from observation, experiment, and logical induction and deduction. A fundamental assumption of the scientific approach is that events investigated are lawful and predictable.
Characteristics of Research
The characteristics of research are summarized as follows (cited in Miller, undated)
1) gathering new data or using existing data for a new purpose from primary or first-hand sources. Teachers frequently assign a so-called ‘research project’ that involves writing a paper dealing with the life of a prominent person. The students are expected to read a number of encyclopedias, books, or periodical references and synthesize the information in a written report. This is not research, for the data are not new. Merely reorganizing or restating what is already known and what has already been written is not research, valuable as it might be as a learning experience. It adds nothing to what is known
2)Research is directed toward the solution of a problem. A problem states a relationship between two or more variables. One variable may be an effect. Research always involves an analysis of the relationships between causes and effects which imply the possibilities of empirical testing. Certain interesting problems do not lend themselves to research procedures because they are metaphysical; they cannot be tested empirically.
Research rejects revelations and dogma as methods of gaining reliable knowledge and accepts only what can be verified by observation.
Research is more than information retrieval – the simple gathering, computation and organization of statistical information. Although many school research departments gather and tabulate factual information that may be useful in decision making, these activities are not properly termed research.
3)Although research activity may, at times, be somewhat unsystematic, it is more often characterized by carefully designed procedures, always applying rigorous logical analysis. Although trial and error are often involved, research is rarely the result of blind shotgun investigation – trying something to see what happens.
4)Research places emphasis upon the development of sound theories or upon the discovery of general principles that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences, research goes beyond the specific objects, groups, or situations investigated, and infers qualities of a target population from those observed in a sample group
5)Research requires expertise. The researcher knows what is already known about the problem under investigation. He or she has researched the related literature carefully. He or she is thoroughly grounded in the terminology, the concepts, and the technology necessary to understand and analyze the problem
6)Research involves accurate observation and description. The researcher uses quantitative, numerical measuring devices, the most precise means of description. He or she selects or devises valid data-gathering instruments, and employs appropriate mechanical, electronic, or psychometric devices to improve on the accuracy of human observation, recording, computation, and analysis of data
7)Research is logical and objective, applying every possible test to validate the procedures employed, the data collected, and the conclusion reached. The researcher strives to eliminate personal feeling and bias. There is no attempt to persuade or to prove an emotionally-held conviction. The emphasis is on testing (probing) rather than on proving the hypothesis. Although absolute objectivity is probably as elusive as pure righteousness, the researcher tries to suppress bias and emotion in the analysis.
8)Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity. Research is rarely a pectacular activity and the researcher must expect disappointment and discouragement in pursuing the answers to difficult questions. The researcher must suspend judgment to permit the logical analysis of data to lead to sound conclusions.
9)Research sometimes requires courage. The researcher must be willing to follow procedures to conclusions that may be unpopular and that may bring social disapproval. The Polish scientist Copernicus (1473 – 1543) was condemned by church authorities when he announced his conclusion concerning the nature of the solar system. His theory that the sun, not the earth, was the center of the solar system, in direct conflict with the older Ptolematic theory, angered supporters of prevailing religious dogma, who viewed his theory as a denial of the story of creation as described in the book of Genesis
10)Research is carefully recorded and reported. Every important term is carefully defined, limiting factors are recognized, procedures are described in detail, references are carefully documented, results are faithfully recorded, and conclusions are presented cautiously and with scholarly restraint. The written report with accompanying data is made available for the scrutiny for associates or other scholars. Any competent reader of the report will have the information necessary to analyze and evaluate the process and the conclusions reached. The report will be presented in sufficient detail so the investigation could be replicated for the purpose of verification.
Types of Research
Generally there are five general types of research. Each has its own purpose. The types are:
1) Descriptive
2) Relational
3) Experimental
4) Quasi-experimental
5) Qualitative
The purpose of description research is to become familiar with a phenomenon, to gain new insight, or to portray status and characteristics of a group or situation. The types of descriptive research include survey, development study, follow-up study, documentary analysis, historical, and trend analysis.
Relational studies include correlational and causal-comparative research.
Correlational studies are concerned with determining the relationship(s) existing among variables.
Causal-comparative research determines the cause for or consequences of a phenomenon that already has taken place. This research is also called the ex-post-facto research
An experimental research establishes different treatments and then studies their effects.
In this research the researcher controls one or more independent variables and observes the effect of these manipulations on the dependent variable(s).
When full control over the scheduling of experimental conditions and randomization cannot always be realized, then one has to resort to quasi-experimental research
Qualitative research is an inquiry mode that emphasizes description, induction, grounded theory, and the story of people’s understanding. As the term implies, qualitative research does not primarily deal with numbers as data and in analysis of data. The main purpose of qualitative inquiry is to “seek for insight, discovery, and interpretation rather than hypothesis testing” (Merriam, 1988, p. 10). In another words, qualitative research seeks meaning of a phenomenon for those involved in depth rather than in breadth.
The approach concerns with understanding the behavior and how people make sense out of their lives. Some characteristics of qualitative research are as follows (Merriam, 1988, p. 19-20):
1)Qualitative researchers are concerned primarily with process, rather than outcomes or products.
2)Qualitative researchers are interested in meaning – how people make sense of their lives, experiences, and their structures of the world.
3)The qualitative researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis. Data are mediated through this human instrument, rather than through inventories, questionnaires, or machines.
4)Qualitative research involves fieldwork. The researcher physically goes to the people, setting, site or institution to observe or record behavior in its natural setting
5)Qualitative research is descriptive in that the researcher is interested in process, meaning, and understanding gained through words or pictures
6)The process of qualitative research is inductive in that the researcher builds abstractions, concepts, hypothesis and theories from details
DATA ANALYSIS
Introduction
The way data analysis is accomplished depending on:
- the nature of the research problem
- the purpose of the research or
- the design of the investigation.
The purpose of the research:
- describing variables or
- examining relationship between variables
Decision made in the data analysis
Decision made in the data analysis of survey research is characterized by a wide spectrum of statistical analysis used.
It may simply consist of determining the frequencies and percentages for the most number of variables in the study.
In an explanatory survey, however, this is desired in exploring the relationship between variables, whether two variables or more.
Depending on the scale of measurement of data used in the data collection, whether continuous, rank or dichotomous relationship studies normally use correlation and regression statistics.
Research problems may also suggest that the purpose of an investigation is to find differences between or among sample means. This is generally called the “analysis of variance” or ANOVA. If only two groups are involved, the analysis is called t-test.
ANOVA allows researcher to deal with:
two or more independent variables simultaneously, asking not only about the individual effects of each variable separately, but
also about the interacting effects of two or more variables.
Regression
Regression is a statistical technique used to establish the relationship between a independent variable (Y) with a set of independent variables (X’s).
the variables of Y and X’s are related in a linear manner.
Regression model is, therefore, used for the value prediction of Y or any X, known to have relationship in a linear manner.
Sometimes, researcher needs to find the significance of differences among the proportions of subjects, objects, events, etc., that fall into different categories.
A statistical technique used in such cases is called the chi-square test.
The way data analysis is accomplished depending on:
- the nature of the research problem
- the purpose of the research or
- the design of the investigation.
The purpose of the research:
- describing variables or
- examining relationship between variables
Decision made in the data analysis
Decision made in the data analysis of survey research is characterized by a wide spectrum of statistical analysis used.
It may simply consist of determining the frequencies and percentages for the most number of variables in the study.
In an explanatory survey, however, this is desired in exploring the relationship between variables, whether two variables or more.
Depending on the scale of measurement of data used in the data collection, whether continuous, rank or dichotomous relationship studies normally use correlation and regression statistics.
Research problems may also suggest that the purpose of an investigation is to find differences between or among sample means. This is generally called the “analysis of variance” or ANOVA. If only two groups are involved, the analysis is called t-test.
ANOVA allows researcher to deal with:
two or more independent variables simultaneously, asking not only about the individual effects of each variable separately, but
also about the interacting effects of two or more variables.
Regression
Regression is a statistical technique used to establish the relationship between a independent variable (Y) with a set of independent variables (X’s).
the variables of Y and X’s are related in a linear manner.
Regression model is, therefore, used for the value prediction of Y or any X, known to have relationship in a linear manner.
Sometimes, researcher needs to find the significance of differences among the proportions of subjects, objects, events, etc., that fall into different categories.
A statistical technique used in such cases is called the chi-square test.
Salam to all OSM601/OSM701 students
I wish to say hello and congratulations on you achieving a higher semester now for OSM601/OSM701. welcome you as adult students and enjoy your day with me.
Nice to meet you all.
Nice to meet you all.
VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
Validity
Validity is the extent to which an instrument measures what one thinks it is measuring. Knowledge management testing instruments are designed for the purpose of appraising constructs such as knowledge acquisition, knowledge dissemination,
responding to knowledge related issues and the like.
Since there are no direct means of measuring these constructs, researchers must develop indirect means to measure complex attributes. These indirect means involve tests and scales consisting a number of items that are selected to serve as indicators of the complex constructs. If the tests and scales measure the constructs, then meaningful and useful inferences will be made from the test or scale scores. Hence, the test or scale is valid.
Validity is always specific to the particular purpose for which the instrument is being used.
A test that is valid in one situation and for one purpose may not be valid in a different situation or for a different purpose.
Validity can be classified into three types: content validity, criterion-related validity and construct validity.
Content Validity
This refers to the extent to which the samples of items or statement on a test are representative of some defined universe, or domain of content. The evidence for content validation is gathered by careful and critical examination by expert judges of the test’s content to determine if the contents are representative or those that constitute the content domain. For example, organizational performance scale should contain items that represent specifications of performance in terms of financial and non-financial outcomes.
Reliability
The reliability of a measuring instrument is the degree of consistency with which it measures whatever it is measuring.
Researchers are concerned about the consistency of their measuring devices when they attempt to measure such complex traits as performance, satisfaction, motivation, attitude and the like.
A test is reliable to the extent that the scores made by an individual remain nearly the same in repeated measurements.
Reliability can be estimated by correlating the scores obtained by the same individuals on different occasions or with different sets of equivalent items. These procedures require two administrators of a test, namely;
1)test-retest reliability; and
2)the equivalent-forms reliability procedures
References:
Aminah Ahmad & Maimunah Ismail (2006) Research method and design. Kuala Lumpur: Pusat Pendidikan Luar, University Putra Malaysia.
Ary D. Jacobs, L. C. & Razavieh, A. (1990). Introduction to research in education. (4th ed). Forth Worth: Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
Babbie, E. (2005). The practice of social research. Belmont: Wadsworth, Publishing Co.
Bryman, A., & Bell, E. (2007). Business research methods. (2nd ed). New York: Oxford University Press.
Mohd. Majid Konting (1990). Kaedah penyelidikan Pendidikan. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Merriam, S. B. (1988). Case study research in education: a qualitative approach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Validity is the extent to which an instrument measures what one thinks it is measuring. Knowledge management testing instruments are designed for the purpose of appraising constructs such as knowledge acquisition, knowledge dissemination,
responding to knowledge related issues and the like.
Since there are no direct means of measuring these constructs, researchers must develop indirect means to measure complex attributes. These indirect means involve tests and scales consisting a number of items that are selected to serve as indicators of the complex constructs. If the tests and scales measure the constructs, then meaningful and useful inferences will be made from the test or scale scores. Hence, the test or scale is valid.
Validity is always specific to the particular purpose for which the instrument is being used.
A test that is valid in one situation and for one purpose may not be valid in a different situation or for a different purpose.
Validity can be classified into three types: content validity, criterion-related validity and construct validity.
Content Validity
This refers to the extent to which the samples of items or statement on a test are representative of some defined universe, or domain of content. The evidence for content validation is gathered by careful and critical examination by expert judges of the test’s content to determine if the contents are representative or those that constitute the content domain. For example, organizational performance scale should contain items that represent specifications of performance in terms of financial and non-financial outcomes.
Reliability
The reliability of a measuring instrument is the degree of consistency with which it measures whatever it is measuring.
Researchers are concerned about the consistency of their measuring devices when they attempt to measure such complex traits as performance, satisfaction, motivation, attitude and the like.
A test is reliable to the extent that the scores made by an individual remain nearly the same in repeated measurements.
Reliability can be estimated by correlating the scores obtained by the same individuals on different occasions or with different sets of equivalent items. These procedures require two administrators of a test, namely;
1)test-retest reliability; and
2)the equivalent-forms reliability procedures
References:
Aminah Ahmad & Maimunah Ismail (2006) Research method and design. Kuala Lumpur: Pusat Pendidikan Luar, University Putra Malaysia.
Ary D. Jacobs, L. C. & Razavieh, A. (1990). Introduction to research in education. (4th ed). Forth Worth: Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
Babbie, E. (2005). The practice of social research. Belmont: Wadsworth, Publishing Co.
Bryman, A., & Bell, E. (2007). Business research methods. (2nd ed). New York: Oxford University Press.
Mohd. Majid Konting (1990). Kaedah penyelidikan Pendidikan. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Merriam, S. B. (1988). Case study research in education: a qualitative approach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES
Introduction
A variable is a characteristic or an attribute by which a person or an object can be described. It reflects or expresses some concepts or constructs. A variable takes on different values. It can change from time to time for a given individual or object, or vary from person to person or from object to object.
Types of Variables
There are several ways of classifying variables. Variables can be categorical or they can be continuous. When subjects are classified by sorting them into groups, the attribute on which the classification is based is termed a categorical variable. Occupation, gender and marital status are examples of categorical variables.
When an attribute has an infinite number of values within a range, it is called a continuous variable. Height, weight, age and performance test scores are examples of continuous variables. The most important classification of variables is on the basis of their use within the research under consideration. This classification includes independent variables and dependent variables.
Variables that are antecedent to the dependent variable are called independent variables.
Variables that are a consequence of or dependents upon antecedent variables are called dependent variables.
The dependent variable is the phenomenon or object of study and investigation.
For example, organizational performance can be a dependent variable.
The independent variable is the factor that is measurably separate and distance from the dependent variable.
Corporate strategies such as administrative problems, technological problems and organizational problems are examples of independent variables that may relate to the dependent variable, organizational performance.
It is possible for a variable to be an independent variable in one study and a dependent variable in another.
Whether a variable is considered independent or dependent is determined by the research question and purpose of the study
A variable is a characteristic or an attribute by which a person or an object can be described. It reflects or expresses some concepts or constructs. A variable takes on different values. It can change from time to time for a given individual or object, or vary from person to person or from object to object.
Types of Variables
There are several ways of classifying variables. Variables can be categorical or they can be continuous. When subjects are classified by sorting them into groups, the attribute on which the classification is based is termed a categorical variable. Occupation, gender and marital status are examples of categorical variables.
When an attribute has an infinite number of values within a range, it is called a continuous variable. Height, weight, age and performance test scores are examples of continuous variables. The most important classification of variables is on the basis of their use within the research under consideration. This classification includes independent variables and dependent variables.
Variables that are antecedent to the dependent variable are called independent variables.
Variables that are a consequence of or dependents upon antecedent variables are called dependent variables.
The dependent variable is the phenomenon or object of study and investigation.
For example, organizational performance can be a dependent variable.
The independent variable is the factor that is measurably separate and distance from the dependent variable.
Corporate strategies such as administrative problems, technological problems and organizational problems are examples of independent variables that may relate to the dependent variable, organizational performance.
It is possible for a variable to be an independent variable in one study and a dependent variable in another.
Whether a variable is considered independent or dependent is determined by the research question and purpose of the study
Thursday, August 25, 2011
What factors determine the most appropriate statistical technique?
1. research objectives/questions/purpose of your study
2. measurement scales you used in your research instrument
3. research design of your studies
4. nature of your data--meeting normality and/or equality of variance assumptions for parametric tests.
2. measurement scales you used in your research instrument
3. research design of your studies
4. nature of your data--meeting normality and/or equality of variance assumptions for parametric tests.
Saturday, August 6, 2011
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing the Part One of this module you will be able to:
- List the four major sources of knowledge and comment on each source
- Describe the characteristics of the scientific approach
- Identify the types of research and explain their purposes
- Identify and explain the steps in a research process
- Define a research problem
- Identify sources of research problem
- State the criteria used for evaluating a research problem
- Evaluate a given research problem
- Identify the population and variables
- List the four major sources of knowledge and comment on each source
- Describe the characteristics of the scientific approach
- Identify the types of research and explain their purposes
- Identify and explain the steps in a research process
- Define a research problem
- Identify sources of research problem
- State the criteria used for evaluating a research problem
- Evaluate a given research problem
- Identify the population and variables