Introduction
This topic introduces concept of research as a scientific approach and the relevance of this approach to the search for knowledge. It also includes characteristics of research and types of research as well as the purpose of each research type.
WHAT IS RESEARCH?
It involves the gathering of new data or using existing data for solving a problem.
A systematic investigation to increase knowledge and understanding, always applying rigorous logical analysis.
A discipline guided by both technique and philosophy of science.
Research places emphasis upon the development of sound theories or upon the discovery of general principles that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences.
Through these conceptualizations we can arrive at a common understanding about research – Research is a systematic process by which data are gathered and analyzed through carefully designed procedures to generate new knowledge and solve an identified problem.
SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
personal experiences, tradition, expert opinions, and the scientific approach.
Experiences and traditions suggest possible ways to proceed in inquiring knowledge but the answers they provide are not always reliable. Experience is subject to personal interpretation which can vary depending on situation and perception.
Tradition can be fallible since it is inherited based on personal opinions of other people through generations.
Experts have shortcomings too. No expert, however, has studied or experienced all there is to know in a given field, and thus can never be totally sure.
Given the drawbacks in these three approaches the most reliable alternative in acquiring knowledge is through a more systematic and empirical means using inductive-deductive method, or the scientific approach.
NATURE OF SCIENCE
Science refers to a systematic knowledge of natural or physical phenomena. There are two essential elements in science toward arriving at truth; rationality and observation. Truth can be ultimately derived from observation, experiment, and logical induction and deduction. A fundamental assumption of the scientific approach is that events investigated are lawful and predictable.
Characteristics of Research
The characteristics of research are summarized as follows (cited in Miller, undated)
1) gathering new data or using existing data for a new purpose from primary or first-hand sources. Teachers frequently assign a so-called ‘research project’ that involves writing a paper dealing with the life of a prominent person. The students are expected to read a number of encyclopedias, books, or periodical references and synthesize the information in a written report. This is not research, for the data are not new. Merely reorganizing or restating what is already known and what has already been written is not research, valuable as it might be as a learning experience. It adds nothing to what is known
2)Research is directed toward the solution of a problem. A problem states a relationship between two or more variables. One variable may be an effect. Research always involves an analysis of the relationships between causes and effects which imply the possibilities of empirical testing. Certain interesting problems do not lend themselves to research procedures because they are metaphysical; they cannot be tested empirically.
Research rejects revelations and dogma as methods of gaining reliable knowledge and accepts only what can be verified by observation.
Research is more than information retrieval – the simple gathering, computation and organization of statistical information. Although many school research departments gather and tabulate factual information that may be useful in decision making, these activities are not properly termed research.
3)Although research activity may, at times, be somewhat unsystematic, it is more often characterized by carefully designed procedures, always applying rigorous logical analysis. Although trial and error are often involved, research is rarely the result of blind shotgun investigation – trying something to see what happens.
4)Research places emphasis upon the development of sound theories or upon the discovery of general principles that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences, research goes beyond the specific objects, groups, or situations investigated, and infers qualities of a target population from those observed in a sample group
5)Research requires expertise. The researcher knows what is already known about the problem under investigation. He or she has researched the related literature carefully. He or she is thoroughly grounded in the terminology, the concepts, and the technology necessary to understand and analyze the problem
6)Research involves accurate observation and description. The researcher uses quantitative, numerical measuring devices, the most precise means of description. He or she selects or devises valid data-gathering instruments, and employs appropriate mechanical, electronic, or psychometric devices to improve on the accuracy of human observation, recording, computation, and analysis of data
7)Research is logical and objective, applying every possible test to validate the procedures employed, the data collected, and the conclusion reached. The researcher strives to eliminate personal feeling and bias. There is no attempt to persuade or to prove an emotionally-held conviction. The emphasis is on testing (probing) rather than on proving the hypothesis. Although absolute objectivity is probably as elusive as pure righteousness, the researcher tries to suppress bias and emotion in the analysis.
8)Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity. Research is rarely a pectacular activity and the researcher must expect disappointment and discouragement in pursuing the answers to difficult questions. The researcher must suspend judgment to permit the logical analysis of data to lead to sound conclusions.
9)Research sometimes requires courage. The researcher must be willing to follow procedures to conclusions that may be unpopular and that may bring social disapproval. The Polish scientist Copernicus (1473 – 1543) was condemned by church authorities when he announced his conclusion concerning the nature of the solar system. His theory that the sun, not the earth, was the center of the solar system, in direct conflict with the older Ptolematic theory, angered supporters of prevailing religious dogma, who viewed his theory as a denial of the story of creation as described in the book of Genesis
10)Research is carefully recorded and reported. Every important term is carefully defined, limiting factors are recognized, procedures are described in detail, references are carefully documented, results are faithfully recorded, and conclusions are presented cautiously and with scholarly restraint. The written report with accompanying data is made available for the scrutiny for associates or other scholars. Any competent reader of the report will have the information necessary to analyze and evaluate the process and the conclusions reached. The report will be presented in sufficient detail so the investigation could be replicated for the purpose of verification.
Types of Research
Generally there are five general types of research. Each has its own purpose. The types are:
1) Descriptive
2) Relational
3) Experimental
4) Quasi-experimental
5) Qualitative
The purpose of description research is to become familiar with a phenomenon, to gain new insight, or to portray status and characteristics of a group or situation. The types of descriptive research include survey, development study, follow-up study, documentary analysis, historical, and trend analysis.
Relational studies include correlational and causal-comparative research.
Correlational studies are concerned with determining the relationship(s) existing among variables.
Causal-comparative research determines the cause for or consequences of a phenomenon that already has taken place. This research is also called the ex-post-facto research
An experimental research establishes different treatments and then studies their effects.
In this research the researcher controls one or more independent variables and observes the effect of these manipulations on the dependent variable(s).
When full control over the scheduling of experimental conditions and randomization cannot always be realized, then one has to resort to quasi-experimental research
Qualitative research is an inquiry mode that emphasizes description, induction, grounded theory, and the story of people’s understanding. As the term implies, qualitative research does not primarily deal with numbers as data and in analysis of data. The main purpose of qualitative inquiry is to “seek for insight, discovery, and interpretation rather than hypothesis testing” (Merriam, 1988, p. 10). In another words, qualitative research seeks meaning of a phenomenon for those involved in depth rather than in breadth.
The approach concerns with understanding the behavior and how people make sense out of their lives. Some characteristics of qualitative research are as follows (Merriam, 1988, p. 19-20):
1)Qualitative researchers are concerned primarily with process, rather than outcomes or products.
2)Qualitative researchers are interested in meaning – how people make sense of their lives, experiences, and their structures of the world.
3)The qualitative researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis. Data are mediated through this human instrument, rather than through inventories, questionnaires, or machines.
4)Qualitative research involves fieldwork. The researcher physically goes to the people, setting, site or institution to observe or record behavior in its natural setting
5)Qualitative research is descriptive in that the researcher is interested in process, meaning, and understanding gained through words or pictures
6)The process of qualitative research is inductive in that the researcher builds abstractions, concepts, hypothesis and theories from details
